Professor Mahesh Anand

Understanding the role of magmatic volatiles (H2O, CO2, SO2, Cl, F) has become an increasingly important part of geoscience in recent decades1a. One of the major challenges in volcanology today is to identify the signals of an imminent eruption and a common, but only semi-empirical approach is to monitor the arrival of gasses that reach the surface ahead of an ascending and decompressing magma. This data is then related to solubility models that predict the order that different volatiles will be release during ascent. However, in terms of forecasting volcanic eruptions, it is the timescale of this dynamic activity that must be understood and this can be achieved by linking processes observed in the products of past and future eruptions to the first geodetic signals of 'unrest' in modern day events1b. In many cases volcanoes exhibit a distinct repeated pattern of behaviour, such that the past can often be the key to the future. At the other end of the spectrum, the release of these volatile components deep within the crust is often associated with mobility of economically important metals, so understanding the processes has the potential to focus prospecting for new ore deposits. The timescale of mineralisation processes may be longer, but dynamic information can be useful in distinguish between conflicting theories of ore formation.

STFC Impact Acceleration Account one year funding programme. This is a solo award made payable directly to your institution and should be used to support knowledge exchange activities for work funded through STFC’s core science programme in FY 21/22 This award includes funding for (but is not limited to): • Innovation and commercialisation proof-of concept projects • Industry / stakeholder engagement and community building workshops • Industry / stakeholder secondments This award should explicitly be used for knowledge exchange related work for the benefit of STFC-funded researchers working in one or more of the STFC core science remit areas.

Samples of Martian origin will be returned to Earth via JAXA’s MMX mission in about six years from now (2029), with Mars surface-collected materials returned to Earth by the NASA/ESA MSR collaboration in about ten years’ time (2033). The timescale involved, particularly for participation in MMX, are tight and action is needed now to ensure that the UK science community is ready to play a full role in the analysis of these precious materials. Appropriate action is required on a number of fronts. We need to be ready in terms of having suitably trained scientists with a relevant expertise in cutting edge analysis techniques relevant to the characterization of Martian samples. We need to maintain and enhance the capabilities of our world-leading analytical facilities that are essential to the analysis of Martian samples. These facilities will provide the scientific leverage required to be part of any initial analysis initiative. And critically, we need to be able to demonstrate to our partner space agencies that we have the appropriate clean handling facilities and preparation techniques relevant to the manipulation of pristine returned samples. This proposal sets out in detail a framework for addressing these issues by providing a PhD opportunity to undertake a cutting-edge oxygen isotope study by laser assisted- fluorination of Martian meteorite samples. The samples that will be analyzed are closely aligned to the composition of the materials already collected and cached by the Perseverance Rover. Oxygen isotope analysis by laser fluorination is a key Martian analysis technique in which the UK is the world-leader. The scientific outputs from this study are critical to understanding the evolution and interactions between the Martian hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere. This work needs to be completed in advance of initial sample return in order to maximize the scientific outputs once the main phase of characterization work commences. This study will not only train a new Mars sample specialist, but will help to sustain and develop our leadership role in Mars critical laser fluorination analysis. In addition, this will provide benefits for the wider UK extraterrestrial analysis community through rapid allocation of returned Mars material, as was the case for asteroidal particles returned by the JAXA Hayabusa2 mission. We will also be obtaining an early allocation in the upcoming NASA OSIRIS-REx initial analysis phase (October 2023). As a consequence of our involvement in these missions, we have developed a range of clean sample manipulation techniques. These will be further developed during the course of this study. The technical expertise and hardware products developed during this project will be disseminated to other groups within the UK analysis community. By making this specialist expertise more widely available we will provide a competitive advantage to other UK-based researchers seeking to bid for pristine returned samples.

STFC Public Engagement Nucleus Award 2024 Stage 2 For many school-aged students, space research is a subject far-removed from their daily lives. They may have heard of meteorites, cosmic dust, micrometeorites, meteors, shooting stars etc, but will almost certainly feel that these have little or no relevance to their own day-to-day experiences. Space rocks may be on display in national museums, but not in the classroom. Using a practical, hands-on approach, this project aims to dispel such misconceptions. The project will raise the “science capital” of the target group of students by bringing into their classrooms a range of extraterrestrial materials that they will then be able to interact with in a practical hands-on way. They will hunt for micrometeorites in their local area and analyze extraterrestrial samples using portable desk-top scanning electron microscopes available from both the Open University and the Natural History Museum. Each school involved in the project will have their own dedicated all-sky camera that will provide them with daily feedback on meteor and fireball activity in their local area. The participating schools will network to exchange samples, data and ideas. Based on recent experience elsewhere, this project will yield new extraterrestrial materials (“urban micrometeorites”) that the participating students will work with, and through this interaction develop a deeper, more profound understanding of key science areas. Through this practical experience, we seek to raise their “science capital”. Some of the new space materials that they discover will be analyzed at Diamond. This will provide the students with the opportunity to see a full science progression, from the initial discovery of new cosmic dust particles, characterization by optical and electron microscopy, to analysis using sophisticated apparatus, such as Diamond. This journey for the students will be exciting and provide a unique insight into how real science works.

For an extended stay on the Moon, humans require habitation with substantial protection from space radiation and micrometeorites. The lunar regolith is a readily available resource in-situ, which could be thermally treated to extract oxygen and water as well as build lunar surface elements, e.g., lunar habitats, landing pad and path using 3D printing techniques. Due to the volumetric heating characteristic intrinsic to microwave heating, it is a much more efficient process than solar or laser sintering for large-scale manufacturing and construction. Our proof of concept experiment has demonstrated that microwave energy couples efficiently with lunar simulants and can readily heat it above the melting temperature. However, testing with lunar simulants cannot fulfil some missing information on microwave heating of lunar regolith, which includes the effects of nanophase iron and highly electrostatic and irregular particle shapes under the real lunar environment, i.e. vacuum and microgravity. Therefore, we aim to develop flight hardware of MARVEL (Microwave heating Apparatus of lunar Regolith for Variant Experiments of Lunar ISRU) as a payload for future ESA lunar ISRU missions. MARVEL will (i) collect and compact three samples (25~50g); (ii) heat the samples with 250 W of input power for 60 minutes; and (iii) measure the temperature and volatile release profile every second until it is cooled down to ambient temperature; to demonstrate the potential of microwave heating for construction and oxygen/water extraction. The ESA’s ISRU demonstrator mission includes a core payload to demonstrate oxygen extraction from lunar soils and secondary payloads demonstrating other aspects of lunar ISRU. Our proposed MARVEL payload could potentially address both these challenges with a unique and enabling technology for Europe. The initial concept of MARVEL at TRL 2, submitted to the ESA RFI of Lunar ISRU Demonstration Platform in December 2018, has made more progress with new consortium members. With the success of this project, we will (i) develop a model of microwave heating behaviour of lunar regolith under lunar conditions; and (ii) establish crucial criteria for developing a microwave heating-based fabrication method, including 3D Printing. 

STFC Planetary Science Consolidated grant - details to be entered here.

STFC Open 2018 DTP

This project will investigate the nature and abundance of volatiles (gases such as CO2, CO, N2, H2) released during linear heating of lunar soils collected during Apollo missions. This study will provide the first quantitative estimate of gases released at different temperature steps that will directly feed into defining the performance requirements for ESA's PROSPECT instrument package which is being developed for a joint Russia-ESA lander mission to the south polar region of the Moon in 2021. I am a member of the ESA's PROSPECT User Group and my role is to help ESA define and refine measurement requirements for PROPSECT from scientists' (i.e. potential users) perspectives. Mahesh Anand is the project lead (PI) and Simeon Barber is the Co-PI on ProsPA instrument which is being developed at the OU under an ESA contract. This project will investigate the nature and abundance of volatiles (gases such as CO2, CO, N2, H2) released during linear heating of lunar soils collected during Apollo missions. This study will provide the first quantitative estimate of gases released at different temperature steps that will directly feed into defining the performance requirements for ESA's PROSPECT instrument package which is being developed for a joint Russia-ESA lander mission to the south polar region of the Moon in 2021. I am a member of the ESA's PROSPECT User Group and my role is to help ESA define and refine measurement requirements for PROPSECT from scientists' (i.e. potential users) perspectives. Mahesh Anand is the project lead (PI) and Simeon Barber is the Co-PI on ProsPA instrument which is being developed at the OU under an ESA contract. The nature and composition of lunar polar regolith is poorly understood as we do not have any samples from these regions on the Moon. Recent studies have indicated significant presence of volatiles (including water-ice) at the lunar poles and it is postulated that the lunar polar regolith is likely to be a mixture of indigenous lunar material (similar to lunar soils that were collected by the Apollo missions from near equatorial regions of the Moon) and in-falling extra-lunar material derived from asteroidal, cometary and solar sources. In the absence of any direct samples of lunar soils from the polar regions, the existing Apollo lunar soils in our collections are best candidates for establishing a baseline for volatile abundances in lunar soils utilizing the same analytical techniques as that proposed for the PROPSECT instrument package. Early studies carried out in 1970's and 1980's confirmed the presence of a range of volatiles in lunar soil that were released at various temperatures during linear heating from ambient temperature to 1400 deg C. However, the exact amount of gases released at a given temperature were never reported and, therefore, it has not been possible to evaluate quantitatively the contributions from various sources (e.g, solar wind, comets, asteroids etc.) for lunar volatiles. In this project, we propose to carry out linear heating experiments on a suite of carefully chosen Apollo soils, many of which have been previously analyzed for their volatiles, using our custom-built FINNESSE mass spectrometry system. In contrast to previous studies, we will calibrate our measurements using flow-rate of reference gases that would allow us to provide quantitative estimates of gases released during linear heating of Apollo soils. The results from our proposed work will not only improve our understanding of the nature and abundance of volatiles in the lunar soil but also help ESA in refining the requirements for the PROSPECT package. The information derived from our proposed work will critically underpin the success of PROSPECT aims and objectives while providing the Prospect User Group and the wider scientific community the baseline against which to interpret the mission data.

STFC DTG Quota 2015-16 AMS record for students starting on or after 01/10/2015

Humans are explorers, and the Moon is expected to play a vital role in our endeavour to expand our presence into space. However, a sustainable and affordable exploration of the Solar System cannot rely solely on Earth’s resources and must use materials obtained and processed locally. The current road map agreed upon by several international space agencies envisages a long-duration presence on the Moon by 2028, initiated through the Lunar Orbital Platform Gateway and supported by commercial service providers. A key aim of this road map is to enable development of In-Situ Resource Utilisation (ISRU) to minimise dependency on transporting all resources from Earth. ISRU is a rapidly growing field in Europe as evidenced by recent ISRU workshop in 2019, organised by ESA with over 350 participants from academia and industry. Water, required for life support and propellant, has been identified as the primary resource. However, for an extended stay on the Moon, humans will require habitats with substantial shielding from radiation and micrometeorites damage. Thus, ESA is planning ISRU demonstrator missions by mid to late 2020s, with a core payload provided by industry to demonstrate oxygen extraction from lunar regolith (soil) as well as secondary payloads for demonstrating other aspects of lunar ISRU. For example, lunar regolith could be thermally treated to extract resources and build an outer habitat shell using additive manufacturing techniques (a.k.a. 3D printing) by robots. Proof of concept experiments have demonstrated that microwaves couple efficiently with lunar regolith and sinter/melt it to build 3D structures and enable resource extraction. The Open University (OU) has an extensive ongoing programme of lunar research, including a rich heritage in spacecraft instrumentation, e.g., Ptolemy and the ProsSPA instruments, of which the latter will perform first ISRU demonstration of producing water on the Moon through reduction of regolith using hydrogen. The OU has also recently invested in a custom-designed microwave instrument to evaluate the heating of planetary materials under vacuum; progressing microwave heating experiments from traditional microwaves in the air to a controllable microwave heating in a simulated space environment. Added Value Solutions UK Ltd. (AVS) designs bespoke solutions for space science markets and are developing thrusters using microwave generators designed by VIPER RF, a microwave design consultancy. Thus, the OU has initiated a collaborative project MARVEL (Microwave heating Apparatus for Regolith Variant Experiments for Lunar ISRU) with AVS and VIPER to prepare the groundwork for the UK to lead development of a Microwave Heating Demonstrator (MHD) payload on future missions to the Moon with the flight hardware being developed and built in the UK. The initial concept development of the MHD payload was successfully completed with support from UKSA’s NSTP GEI funding. As a follow-up of the GEI project, this NSTP Pathfinder grant will allow the consortium to develop a complete (including design) concept of the MHD payload. The main objectives of this project are to: (i) develop the detailed features and functional integration of the microwave cavity design, (ii) evaluate the cavity design through computational simulation, and lab-based experiment using the existing bespoke microwave heating system with specific parameters for the MHD payload, (iii) devise a realistic concept and analyse the requirement for developing 1 kW solid-state microwave generator, which can be included in the MHD payload, and (iv) develop a robust payload concept of MHD, and exploit the technological advancements arising from this project to place the UK industry at the forefront of lunar ISRU missions such as ESA’s ISRU demonstrator mission and NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program. The successful completion of the proposed project will increase the TRL of the MHD payload from 2 to 3/4.

Our proposed research programme addresses the origin and evolution of the Solar System, including surfaces, atmospheres and physical, geological, chemical and biological processes on the terrestrial planets, the Moon, asteroids, comets, icy satellites and extraterrestrial materials, in a range of projects which address the STFC Science Roadmap challenge B: “How do stars and planetary systems develop and is life unique to our planet?” The inner rocky bodies of the Solar System are of particular importance in understanding planetary system evolution, because of their common origin but subsequent divergent histories. Lunar samples will be used to determine the abundance and composition of volatile elements on the Moon, their source(s) in the lunar interior, and processes influencing their evolution over lunar geological history. Oxygen isotope analysis will be used to determine the conditions and processes that shape the formation of materials during the earliest stages of Solar System formation. Mars is the focus of international Solar System exploration programmes, with the ultimate aim of Mars Sample Return. We will: investigate the martian water cycle on global and local scales through a synthesis of atmospheric modeling, space mission data and surface geology; assess potential changes in the composition of Mars’ atmosphere over time through measurement of tracers trapped in martian meteorites of different ages; and determine whether carbon dioxide, rather than water flow, is able to account for recently active surface features on Mars. Mercury is an end-member in the planet-formation spectrum and we plan to exploit NASA MESSENGER data to study its origin and crustal evolution, and prepare for ESA’s BepiColombo mission. The cold outer regions of the Solar System, and particularly comets, are believed to have retained some of the most pristine primitive material from their formation. We plan to probe the composition and origins of cometary material and understand the processes that drive cometary activity through: laboratory analysis of the most primitive Interplanetary Dust Particles; and direct measurements of a comet by our instruments on the Rosetta mission, together with laboratory simulations. We will conduct laboratory ultraviolet observations of irradiated ices to provide new insights into the composition of Solar System ices and how they may create atmospheres around their parent bodies. We will also investigate the role volatiles can play in the cohesion (“making”) of Solar System minor bodies, and the fragmentation that can be achieved by thermal cycling (a candidate process that “breaks” them). The question of whether Earth is a unique location for life in the Solar System remains one of the most enduring questions of our time. We plan to investigate how the geochemistry of potentially habitable environments on Mars, Europa and Enceladus would change over geological timescales if life was present, producing distinguishable biomarkers that could be used as evidence of life in the Solar System. We will study the role of hypervelocity impacts in: the processing of compounds of critical interest to habitability (water, sulfur-species, organic species) during crater formation; and the hydrothermal system of the 100 km diameter Manicouagan impact structure in Canada to assess the astrobiological implications of hydrothermal systems for early Mars. In addition to satisfying humanity’s innate desire to explore and understand the Universe around us, our research has more tangible benefits. We use the analytical techniques involved from development of space and laboratory instrumentation for applications with companies in fields as diverse as medicine, security, tourism and cosmetics. One of the most important benefits of our research is that it helps to train and inspire students - the next generation of scientists and engineers – through training within the University and public outreach and schools programmes.

DTG 2015-16 (2016 INTAKE)

The Europlanet 2020 Research Infrastructure (EPN2020-RI) will address key scientific and technological challenges facing modern planetary science by providing open access to state-of-the-art research data, models and facilities across the European Research Area. Its Transnational Access activities will provide access to realistic analogue field sites for Mars, Europa and Titan, and world-leading laboratory facilities that simulate conditions found on planetary bodies. Its two Virtual Access activities will make available the diverse datasets and visualisation tools needed for comparing and understanding planetary environments in the Solar System and beyond. By providing the underpinning facilities that European planetary scientists need to conduct their research, EPN2020-RI will create cooperation and effective synergies between its different components: space exploration, ground-based observations, laboratory and field experiments, numerical modelling, and technology. EPN2020-RI builds on the foundations of the previous FP6 and FP7 Europlanet programmes that established the ‘Europlanet brand’ and organised structures that will be used in the Networking Activities of EPN2020-RI to coordinate the European planetary science community’s research. Furthermore, it will disseminate its results to a wide range of stakeholders including ERA industry, policy makers and, crucially,both the wider public and the next generation of researchers and opinion formers, now in education. As an Advanced Infrastructure we place particular emphasis on widening the participation of previously under-represented research communities and stakeholders. We aim to include new countries and Inclusiveness Member States, via workshops, team meetings, and personnel exchanges, to improve the scientific and innovation impact of the infrastructure. EPN2020-RI will therefore build a truly pan-European community that shares common goals, facilities, personnel, data and IP across national boundaries.

This study aims at understanding how the abundance and the distribution of volatile components, as well as their isotopic composition are influenced by the crystal structure of the host mineral in lunar samples. The volatile containing minerals – primarily phosphates – respond to pressure increase caused by the impact events by accommodating i.e. compressing their crystal structures, causing redistribution of the volatile, but also of the stable (e.g., H, Cl) and radiogenic isotopes (e.g., Pb). Therefore they not only provide a unique opportunity for precise age-determination of an impact event, but also simultaneous determination of the isotopic signature of the volatiles, a fingerprint to the source of the volatiles. This is a powerful approach for discriminating between indigenous and externally-derived volatile sources (solar wind, cosmic radiation, etc.), which is one of the remaining puzzles in studying the origin of water in the inner Solar System.

‘Penetrators’ are a new kind of spacecraft that land at high speed (think bullet from a gun!) into a planetary body such as the Moon, Mars or Europa, burying themselves a few meters into the ground in the process. Because they land at high speed, they don’t need much fuel to slow themselves down before hitting the surface – which means that the missions can be lightweight – which also means inexpensive. And here’s the clever bit: they contain a suite of sensors that operate during and after the landing, taking a host of scientific measurements such as the structure of the material into which they have landed, its temperature and chemical composition – even photos of the landing site. Many scientists – us included – think the best place to land the first penetrator mission would be near the south pole of the Moon. This has never been visited before, because it is very cold and there is very little sunlight to power the solar cells needed to keep a traditional Moon lander or rover alive. In fact, some places are so cold that we believe that valuable materials such as water ice may have collected there over billions of years in a gigantic deep freeze, holding clues about how the Moon formed and evolved. Not only is this of tremendous scientific value, it also changes the way we think about exploring the Moon and even our solar system. If we can find this water it opens up the possibility of using it to supply astronauts in future Moon bases with drinking water. And then we can split it into hydrogen and oxygen to fuel a new fleet of spacecraft that could take advantage of the Moon’s low gravity to launch new missions to Mars and beyond. This study is a vital step in designing a penetrator mission. We want to study how the radio signal that it transmits after landing, is affected by the soil it is buried beneath. If we find that the signal passes easily through the soil, we can design the penetrator to go deeper so it can achieve more science. If the signal doesn’t pass easily, then we will design a shallower penetrator. The ideal experiment would test a radio signal passing through real lunar soil. But to do this would require a lot of soil – much more than we could obtain of the precious samples brought back to Earth by NASA’s Apollo missions. And there’s another problem – all the samples on Earth are from near the Moon’s equator, meaning it is very different to what we would expect to find near the pole. So our first step will be to identify a suitable lunar soil ‘analogue’ – an Earth rock that has been crushed to mimic the essential properties of the Moon’s polar soil. Then we will mix it with varying proportions of water ice, and cool it to a range of sub-zero temperatures, to mimic the conditions at the lunar poles. And finally we can obtain a suite of measurements of the electrical properties of the soil, which we can feed into a computer model to predict how our penetrator antenna will perform when buried on the Moon. This research will be performed by The Open University partnered by QinetiQ Limited, and you can follow our progress at www.spacelabslive.com

The European Space Agency (ESA) is developing a suite of instruments in collaboration with the Russian Space Agency (Roscosmos) for its lunar exploration Program. In particular, ESA is investing in building an instrument package called PROSPECT (Platform for Resource Observation and in-Situ Prospecting for Exploration, Commercial Exploitation and Transportation) consisting of a chemical laboratory (Prospect Sample Processing and Analysis - ProSPA) and a drill (PROSPECT Sample Excavation and Extraction Device - ProSEED). The PROSPECT package will drill into the sub surface in the lunar polar regions and extract samples of regolith which are expected to contain water ice and other cold trapped volatiles in unknown quantities. ProSPA will identify the complex mix of chemical species present in the polar lunar regolith, their abundances and isotopic composition. The complex mix of chemicals present in the lunar polar regions is not known but may be postulated as being a combination of equatorial lunar regolith, which has been studied extensively and that found in carbonaceous chondrites. This information has been used to define the requirements for the measurement performance of the PROSPECT end to end system which are related to specific elements, isotopes and chemical species. These requirements must be verified against a standard. This standard must be comparable in composition and complexity to that expected for the lunar polar regolith. Any standard produced can also be used as a standard for other instruments on Luna-27 and other missions to the lunar poles, elsewhere on the Moon or asteroids, as well as sample return. It’s utilisation across different platforms would allow comprehensive comparison of results between missions and instruments providing enhanced return, both scientific and in terms of resource prospecting. The PROSPECT User Group, which has defined these measurement requirements, has defined CM chondrite as the ideal standard material for verification of these measurement requirements for the system. As a lower priority CV chondrite has been identified as a candidate, it’s primary benefit being related to the relative abundance of the material. Given the relative scarcity of CM chondrite the suggested approach is to prepare standards using both CM chondrite (smaller quantity) and CV chondrite (larger quantity). Through this work, we will characterise a CM and a CV chondrite through mineralogical, chemical and isotopic measurements (e.g., C, N) using a suite of analytical instruments at the Open University. The CV chondrite based standard shall be used as a preliminary verification. Following a successful verification a full verification shall be accomplished using the CM chondrite based standard.

The aim of our programme in Astronomy & Planetary Science at the Open University (APSOU) is to carryout detailed investigations of the origin and evolution of galaxies, stars and planets with a special emphasis on our own Solar System through a combination of observation, simulation, laboratory analysis and theoretical modelling. Our research is divided into two broad areas, reflecting the historical research strengths. This research programme is well-matched to both nationally- and internationally-agreed research imperatives. In its final report, A Science Vision for European Astronomy2, Astronet’s Science Working Group identified four broad areas of strategic importance; our research covers major topics within each of these areas. APSOU projects also map onto two of the four Science Challenges that form STFC’s Road Map3 for science (‘How did the universe begin and how is it evolving?’ and ‘How do stars and planetary systems develop and is life unique to our planet?’). The present APSOU programme comprises 20 projects (labelled A to T), of which 6 are for consideration by the Astronomy Observation (AO) panel, 1 for Astronomy Theory (AT), and 13 for the Planetary Studies (PL) panel. The AO projects cover the breadth of the 7 themes recognised as UK strengths in the report of STFC’s Astronomy Advisory Panel (AAP), whilst the 13 PL projects are directed towards answering questions raised in two of the three themes identified as UK strengths in the roadmap of STFC’s Solar System Advisory Panel (SSAP)4.

Recent advancements in in-situ analytical instrumentation and techniques have enabled high-precision measurements of water (OH) contents and its hydrogen (H) isotopic composition in volatile-bearing mineral phases (e.g., apatite) in extra-terrestrial samples such as lunar and Martian basalts. These investigations have brought about a paradigm shift in our understanding of the sources of volatiles in the inner Solar System materials and the processes that influence or change the signatures observed (e.g., Anand et al., 2014). On-going research on lunar samples seem to suggest carbonaceous chondrite-like sources for water in the Earth-Moon system, along with identifying magmatic degassing as a fundamental process operating on airless planetary bodies such as the Moon (e.g., Tartèse et al, 2014). In order to fully evaluate and assess the volatile inventory of the inner Solar System materials using apatite, it is necessary to investigate apatite in chondritic meteorites for their volatiles. We are expanding our research on apatites to include chondritic meteorites (specifically in carbonaceous chondrites) to generate a dataset with which to compare the existing data from lunar and other meteoritic samples. The proposed work will primarily focus on a selection of carbonaceous chondrites in which apatite has been previously reported (e.g. Krot et al., 2014). The work will involve optical and mineralogical investigations of polished thin-sections using Secondary Electron Microscope (SEM) and/or electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) techniques to investigate textural links between the apatite and surrounding minerals. Such textural information will be critical in developing a better understanding of the context in which apatite might have formed and will be useful in elucidating the volatile history of the samples.

Recent advancements in in-situ analytical instrumentation and techniques have enabled high-precision measurements of water (OH) contents and its hydrogen (H) isotopic composition in volatile-bearing mineral phases (e.g., apatite) in extra-terrestrial samples such as lunar and martian basalts. These investigations have brought about a paradigm shift in our understanding of the processes and sources involved in giving rise to the volatile inventory of the inner solar system bodies (e.g., Anand 2014). On-going research on lunar samples seem to suggest asteroidal sources for water in the Earth-Moon system along with a dominant role for magma degassing on an airless planetary body such as the Moon (e.g., Tartèse and Anand, 2013). In order to fully evaluate and assess the volatile inventory of the inner solar system it is necessary to investigate the basaltic samples from the Howardite-Eucrite-Diogenite (HED) suite of meteorites for their OH contents and H isotopic composition. We are embarking upon measurements of the OH contents and H isotopic composition of apatites in HEDs using a NanoSIMS building upon the analytical protocol recently established at the Open University (e.g., Tartese et al., 2013). However, the HED meteorites display a wide mineralogical, compositional, and textural variations and, therefore, it is critical to fully characterize each sample for its mineralogical and petrological features in order to fully integrate their volatile element data. The proposed work will involve analysis of polished thin sections of selected HEDs using a Secondary Electron Microscope (SEM) and electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) techniques to investigate textural links between the apatite and surrounding minerals. Such textural information will be critical in developing a better understanding of the overall petrogenesis of the HED suite and is useful in determining the volatile history of the samples.